Why is there a need to specifically examine the killings of females by males, referred to as “femicide”? What are the different types of femicide and what are the challenges in preventing femicide?
In part 1, we discussed the understanding of femicide and its occurrence in conflict situations and war. Part 2 briefly explores other types of femicide, the challenges in eradicating them, and why we should look beyond reform in the effort to eliminate violence against women.
No Stranger Femicide
Although the percentage of intimate partners femicide is higher in Europe and the Americas compared to other parts of the globe as mentioned in part 1, some countries show different trends. Data from Indonesia reveals that intimate femicide—murder committed by husbands, ex-husbands, boyfriends, ex-boyfriends, and cohabitation partners—is the most prevalent type of femicide in the country (The National Commission on Violence Against Women in Antara News 2024a), suggesting issues related to power dynamics. In August 2023, a high-profile case of intimate partner femicide occurred in Merangin, Jambi where a woman’s body was found decomposed in a garden and her husband was named as a suspect. According to The Commission, there are 290 femicide cases from October 2023 to October 2024, which is a decrease compared to the previous period (Tempo.co, 2024); nonetheless, it is still an alarming trend.
Joint research published by UN Women (2023) reveals that data availability on femicide in Southeast Asia and the Pacific is low and increased reporting efforts is needed. In recent years, Indonesia has made efforts to gather data on femicide. This is a challenging endeavor, as within Indonesia’s legal context, cases of murdered women are treated as common homicides (Antara News, 2024b).
Data from Indonesia reveals that intimate femicide is the most prevalent type of femicide in the country.
On the other hand, Canada has a long history of cases involving missing or murdered First Nation women. Official figures show that 71% of indigenous women murdered between 1980 and 2012 were killed by someone they knew, suggesting the high prevalence of domestic violence within indigenous communities. Overall, official figures show that 1,200 Indigenous women and girls have been reported missing or murdered since 1980. However, according to many advocacy groups, such as the Native Women's Association of Canada, the number is closer to 4,000. Many cases remain unresolved (Into the Shadows, 2024).
Some view the problem of gender-based violence in the indigenous communities of Canada as cultural. On the contrary, we need to examine the root causes in the context of colonial history, where institutionalized marginalization, oppression, and impoverishment of indigenous people occurred. These factors have significantly increased violence and the vulnerability of indigenous women and girls to violence.
We need to examine the root causes [of gender-based violence] in the context of colonial history, where institutionalized marginalization, oppression, and impoverishment of indigenous people [in Canada] occurred.
Furthermore, victims’ families believe that embedded racism within law enforcement leads to the neglect of murder cases involving indigenous people and contributes to numerous unresolved and cold cases (Allen, 2022). This indicates a state failure to prevent and punish femicide.
In response to high cases of missing and murdered indigenous women and girls, the Canadian government held a national inquiry and released a final report in 2019. The report deemed the crisis a genocide while recognizing colonialism, systemic racism, and gender-based violence as the root cause. However, the government is criticized for its slow response in implementing the recommendations of the report (Into the Shadows, 2024).
Cultural-related Femicide
Femicide by family members in the form of honor killings are deeply entrenched in the cultural landscape of numerous countries. Pakistan has one of the highest rates of honor killings in the world, with human right defenders estimating that 1,000 women are killed every year in the name of honor by methods such as shotguns, strangulation, or burning (Wikipedia). However, according to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, hundreds of women are estimated to be killed each year (CBS News, 2023).
Common reasons for honor-related femicide vary, including a woman refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being raped or sexually assaulted, and being deemed as dressing inappropriately or displaying disobedient or shameful behavior. Last year, an 18-year-old woman was shot dead by her father and three other men on orders from elders of a tribal after an apparently doctored photo of her sitting with a boyfriend went viral on social media.
Pakistan has one of the highest rates of honor killings in the world.
Pakistan has pursued legal changes. In 2016, the government amended its legislation to impose a mandatory life sentence for perpetrators of honor killings. Previously, avoiding a jail term was possible if perpetrators were pardoned by the victim's family. Despite the change in the law, human rights groups say that perpetrators are still escaping justice (CBS News, 2023).
Dowry death is another example of cultural- and family-related killings predominantly perpetrated by male family members, particularly the husband and his relatives. In India, which has one of the highest rates of dowry deaths, 6,450 dowry deaths were registered with the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) in 2022, a slight decline from previous years (Rajkumar, 2023). Seeking justice may take years. In December 2024, a court in Mainpuri sentenced a man and his brother to life imprisonment for setting his wife, Reena Devi, ablaze over ten years ago, over dowry demands (Dilshad, 2024).
India has one of the highest rates of dowry deaths.
In India, Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code was introduced in 1983 to protect married women from cruelty by their husbands or his relatives, with the aim of combating dowry deaths. Nevertheless, cultural norms and a lack of trust in the legal system continue to hinder effective outcomes (BharatLaw.ai, 2024).
Femicide in intimate and familial relationships reflects the control and subjugation of women in the private sphere, as well as the broader gender inequality in society.
The Curious Case of Iceland
Iceland, a country that has closed more than 90% of its gender gap, among other ways, through various reforms (in health, education, political empowerment, and economic participation). Presumably, reforms and a narrow gender gap would significantly reduce all forms of violence against women. Unfortunately, in reality it does not work that way. Iceland has been coined “the best place in the world for a woman”, but in fact, it is a place where a quarter of women have experienced rape or attempted rape and around 40% have been subjected to physical or sexual violence (BBC News, 2024). However, in 2023, Iceland saw a significant decrease in reported sexual abuse (Ćirić, 2024).
While femicide remains low, recent data from 2023 indicates that Iceland has been experiencing an increasing trend in domestic violence over the past few years (Statista, 2024). Thus, although Iceland is considered one of the safest countries in the world, women are apparently not so safe inside the home.
This puzzling phenomenon, known as the "Nordic Paradox," reveals that gender equality does not necessarily translate into safety for women.
In fact, despite ranking high in the World Economic Forum's gender-equality rankings, Iceland, along with other Nordic countries, has rates of gender-based violence above the European Union (EU) average (Higgins, 2024). This puzzling phenomenon, known as the "Nordic Paradox," reveals that gender equality does not necessarily translate into safety for women. Even in a country as advanced in equality as Iceland, gendered power relations remain prevalent, especially in the private sphere, where masculinity and male dominance persist.
Beyond Reform
From our discussion in parts 1 and 2, it appears that addressing gender-based violence, including femicide, requires structural changes in gendered power relations that extend beyond policy, legal, political, and economic reforms. Any real change necessitates the redefinition of masculinity and femininity, rather than merely redistributing or eliminating gender roles to fix imbalances—a practice that does not address the root cause of violence against women.
True change involves deconstructing both masculinity and femininity, which are shaped by deep-rooted patriarchal values and interests that perpetuate gendered power structures, and an understanding of how these structures are interconnected with class, race, ethnicity, sexuality, disability, and belief systems. Therefore, achieving these goals entails a generational struggle to deconstruct existing ethics and moral values. These objectives cannot be met by relying solely on policy changes; rather, a strong civil society-driven sociocultural change is essential.
Image: Death Seizing a Woman by Kathe Kollwitz, 1934 (Wikiart.org)
Check out my other blog for essays on gender, history, and culture.
Sources:
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Antara News (2024b) Komnas Perempuan asks gov't to form femicide watch. https://en.antaranews.com/news/313179/komnas-perempuan-asks-govt-to-form-femicide-watch [11 December 2024].
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