THE SALUTE OF TYRANNY

 

Today, 80 years later after World War II and over a hundred years later since its first political usage, the fascist or Nazi salute still provokes major controversy and is considered offensive by many. This is what recently happened when Elon Musk struck a similar gesture, which some interpreted as the Nazi salute, causing grave criticism and debate. However, the salute was not invented by Nazis. In fact, it was once a symbol of opposition to tyranny and associated with a form of democratic rule. So how did this change?

 

The Roman Salute

“‘Go,’ he cried, in bitter reproach, ‘go to your betrothed with your ill-timed love, forgetful as you are of your dead brothers, of the one who still lives and of your country! So perish every Roman woman who mourns for an enemy!’”

(Titus Livius (Livy) The History of Rome. Book 1, Chapter 26, 27–9 BC)

 

This is an excerpt from the book History of Rome, also known as Ab Urbe Condita, written by Roman historian Livy, where he describes the account of the legendary battle between Rome and Alba Longa. During the battle, two of the Horatii brothers, Marcus and Lucius, were killed, leaving only Publius to defend Rome. He alone defeated the Curiatii brothers, killing each of them one by one.

Publius came home as a hero. He was met by a hailing mass and a sister who cried when she saw her dead lover’s cloak adorning his shoulders, one she had sewn herself. Enraged by this public demonstration of personal grief and dishonor of the state—behaviors condemned in Roman patriotic values—Publius drew his sword and killed his only sister, Camilla.

According to legend, the conflict between Rome and Alba Longa (an ancient city in Latium, central Italy, in the Alban Hills) was primarily driven by competition for resources and power. War was sparked by mutual allegations of cattle theft. To secure more resources and power, the third king of Rome, Tullus Hostilius, sought to expand Rome's influence over neighboring cities. The war was settled through a duel between two sets of triplet brothers: the Roman Horatii and the Alban Curiatii.

The Oath of the Horatii by Jacques-Louis David (1784 and 1785)

This account of the history of Rome inspired the famous painting "The Oath of the Horatii", by French artist, Jacques-Louis David (1784 and 1785). David's painting dramatized the moment when the Horatii brothers took an oath of loyalty to the state—by lifting their right arms with their hands spread openly before their father—to fight to the death for Rome. This gesture became known as the legendary “Roman salute”.

 

Loyalty to the State

Legend has it that the two cities, Rome and Alba Longa, were closely related as Rome's founders, Romulus and Remus, were descendants of the royal family of Alba Longa. As conflict emerged between the two cities, marriages have been arranged to unite the people and solidify political stability. This narrative is also depicted in the "The Oath of the Horatii" painting.

Seen on the right corner of the painting are three women and two children. The younger women are interpreted as Sabina, the Curiatii’s sister and wife of one of the Horatii brothers, and Camilla, the Horatii brothers' sister engaged to one of the Curiatii brothers. The elderly woman with the children (presumably Sabina’s) is the Horatii brothers’ mother. An expression of devastation can be seen on the faces of the women and even their body postures. This is because Rome’s victory or loss meant that they would lose loved ones.

The painting, which David initially began in 1784, was commissioned by the French government to promote loyalty to the state and, by extension, the monarchy. However, the painting’s message of sacrifice for the common good and patriotic values resonated with the tensions emerging during the pre-French revolution period. David himself later “betrayed” his commissioner by publicly supporting the revolution.

 

The Fascist Salute

"The Oath of the Horatii" depicts a scene inspired by the legend of ancient Rome from the Roman Kingdom period (753–509 BCE). However, the Roman salute depicted in the painting was created from the imagination of the artist. There is no historical evidence that this salute was ever used in ancient Rome. The salute became mostly associated with Roman republicanism due to the influence of neoclassical art and political movements which sought to evoke Roman ideals of unity and strength.

The painting, with the famed salute, became iconic for capturing the spirit of what would lead to the French Revolution, the executions of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, and the abolishment of the French monarchy. The salute was further popularized in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries through plays, films, and other artworks.

Ironically, the Roman salute—which resonated with the revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity, and opposition to monarchy—would, in the 20^th century, become the symbol of tyranny with the emergence of fascism.

Gabriele d'Annunzio (The collector.com)

It was in the 20^th century that the Roman salute became a political brand. Italian fascist groups used the salute to symbolize loyalty and sacrifice for the good of the greater state as well as invoke an idealized Roman past. The salute was first popularized by the Italian nationalist poet turned political leader, Gabriele d'Annunzio, who—influenced by Italian films recounting a re-imagined and romanticized Roman era—used this salute during his occupation of Fiume in 1919. Since 1921, the Italian National Fascist Party gradually adopted the Roman salute until in 1923, it became the official salute of the Mussolini regime. The salute would then be typically referred to as the “fascist salute”.

The Nazi party also began using it in 1921 and officially adopted it in 1926. Initially used by Italian nationalists and fascists, the salute became widely associated with the Nazi regime, especially after World War II, where it was subsequently referred to as the "Nazi salute".

 

Women, Honor, and the Nation

Let’s go back to the painting to understand the oppressive political nature of “loyalty to the state”. It is important to note that the murder of Camilla Horatii on the premises of loyalty and honor, of which her brother upheld, reflects how women are positioned in a nation. Because of women’s capacity to reproduce, they ensure the continuity of the nation and therefore hold the role of safeguarding its “purity”. Relationships with foreign men, especially from rival nations or groups, are seen as threats to the nation’s identity which could create a crisis of loyalty. Women, therefore, become the boundary between nations or groups. They symbolize the honor of the nation; thus, they must show unquestionable loyalty to the state and its men.

That is why, in some of the countries liberated during World War II, women who married or had sexual relationships with enemy men were scorned, stigmatized, and even had their heads shaved to be paraded through the streets. They were shamed for disrupting honor and loyalty. For Camilla, her love for and devotion to the enemy man, her fiancé, cost her her life.

"Rulers strengthen their power through loyalty, while the people, in return, are rewarded with the delusion of pride and honor. 

 

Another example, under fascist regimes, men are obligated to defend and expand the nation. To secure a nation with an army of strong men, women were idealized as symbols of purity and national pride, serving the state through motherhood as a patriotic duty.

Within this framework, women maintain the identity of the nation, especially through the children they bore. Thus, in wars, the rape of enemy women parallels the invasion of enemy territory—women become spoils of war, tainting the nation’s identity with alien offspring, disgracing the men, and paralyzing communities.

The death of Camilla Horatii at the hands of her own brother, as told in the legend of ancient Roman history, illustrates how women serve as the boundary and identity of a nation. This tale seeks to promote patriotism—loyalty to and sacrifice for the state. Rulers strengthen their power through loyalty, while the people, in return, are rewarded with the delusion of pride and honor. This propaganda is used throughout history and founds the modern state.

 

The Fascist Salute Was Once a Symbol of Democratic Rule

The Roman salute in Jacques-Louis David’s "The Oath of the Horatii" was inspired by the legend of the Roman kingdom. Based on this legend, the painting was initially commissioned to promote loyalty to the French monarchy. However, amid France’s political tensions, shifting patriotic values transformed the narrative, and the painting became a symbol of loyalty to the republic (state). The salute itself was subsequently associated with Roman republicanism which overthrew the monarchy.

Interestingly, however, the salute had been further adapted to fit other political contexts as needed, including its association with the imperial rule of the Roman Empire that destroyed the republic. This, for example, aligned with Mussolini’s dream of building a re-imagined powerful Roman empire under fascism.

After World War I, fascist rulers in Rome and Germany co-opted the Roman salute, solidifying its association with fascism. The meaning of what the salute stood for completely shifted from what was the spirit of the French revolution to an extreme ideology of state power—from liberty to tyranny. Yet, whether under liberty or tyranny, the guise of defending patriotism and nationalism has consistently justified the stigmatization—or in Camilla’s case, murder—of women because of their personal ties to the enemy.

It is also interesting to observe how the political contexts associated with the salute coincide with the cycles of political change experienced by many nations. These changes reflect the cycle from autocratic rule (monarchy, dictatorship) to democracies, and then a regression to authoritarianism, if not an autocracy similar to fascism. The latter may be combined with an oligarchic male-elitist-type of rule, as what we are seeing in some countries today.

Indeed, the history of the Roman salute, renowned as the fascist salute, is quite interesting. Who would have imagined that it once symbolized a form of democratic rule?

Read my other blog for topics on history and countercultures

Images: All pictures of The Oath of the Horatii are from smarthistory.org.

Sources:

Bird, Danny (2025) “The History of the Hitler Salute, From Its Dubious Roman Origins to Its Use by the Far Right.” HistoryExtra. https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/hitler-salute-roman-origins [26 January 2025]

Heß, Johannes and Tobias Klee (2021) ‘Masculine Nations, Female Personifications – The Gendered Imagery of Nationalism.’ Scripts. https://www.scripts-berlin.eu/publications/Think-Pieces/Masculine-Nations_-Female-Personifications/index.html [22 March 2025].

Livy (1912) History of Rome. Book 1. Translated by Rev. Canon Roberts. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0026%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D26 [1 March 2025].

McCoy, Claire Black (2025) 'Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii.' Smarthistory. https://smarthistory.org/jacques-louis-david-oath-of-the-horatii/ [27 January 2025]

Nagel, Joane (1998) 'Masculinity and Nationalism: Gender and Sexuality in The Making of Nations.' Ethnic and Racial Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 March 1998. https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/podzim2005/SOC765/um/Masculinity_and_nationalism_Nagel.pdf [22 March 2025].

Ronchini, Maria-Anita (2024) ‘Who Was Gabriele D’Annunzio?’ The Collector. https://www.thecollector.com/who-was-gabriele-d-annunzio/ [26 January 2025].

Wikipedia (2025) Oath of the Horatii. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oath_of_the_Horatii [21 January 2025].

FEMICIDE: Crimes of Passion, Honor, and War (Part 2)

 

Why is there a need to specifically examine the killings of females by males, referred to as “femicide”? What are the different types of femicide and what are the challenges in preventing femicide?

In part 1, we discussed the understanding of femicide and its occurrence in conflict situations and war. Part 2 briefly explores other types of femicide, the challenges in eradicating them, and why we should look beyond reform in the effort to eliminate violence against women.

 

No Stranger Femicide

Although the percentage of intimate partners femicide is higher in Europe and the Americas compared to other parts of the globe as mentioned in part 1, some countries show different trends. Data from Indonesia reveals that intimate femicide—murder committed by husbands, ex-husbands, boyfriends, ex-boyfriends, and cohabitation partners—is the most prevalent type of femicide in the country (The National Commission on Violence Against Women in Antara News 2024a), suggesting issues related to power dynamics. In August 2023, a high-profile case of intimate partner femicide occurred in Merangin, Jambi where a woman’s body was found decomposed in a garden and her husband was named as a suspect. According to The Commission, there are 290 femicide cases from October 2023 to October 2024, which is a decrease compared to the previous period (Tempo.co, 2024); nonetheless, it is still an alarming trend.

Joint research published by UN Women (2023) reveals that data availability on femicide in Southeast Asia and the Pacific is low and increased reporting efforts is needed. In recent years, Indonesia has made efforts to gather data on femicide. This is a challenging endeavor, as within Indonesia’s legal context, cases of murdered women are treated as common homicides (Antara News, 2024b). 

 

Data from Indonesia reveals that intimate femicide is the most prevalent type of femicide in the country.

 

On the other hand, Canada has a long history of cases involving missing or murdered First Nation women. Official figures show that 71% of indigenous women murdered between 1980 and 2012 were killed by someone they knew, suggesting the high prevalence of domestic violence within indigenous communities. Overall, official figures show that 1,200 Indigenous women and girls have been reported missing or murdered since 1980. However, according to many advocacy groups, such as the Native Women's Association of Canada, the number is closer to 4,000. Many cases remain unresolved (Into the Shadows, 2024).

Some view the problem of gender-based violence in the indigenous communities of Canada as cultural. On the contrary, we need to examine the root causes in the context of colonial history, where institutionalized marginalization, oppression, and impoverishment of indigenous people occurred. These factors have significantly increased violence and the vulnerability of indigenous women and girls to violence. 

 

We need to examine the root causes [of gender-based violence] in the context of colonial history, where institutionalized marginalization, oppression, and impoverishment of indigenous people [in Canada] occurred.

 

Furthermore, victims’ families believe that embedded racism within law enforcement leads to the neglect of murder cases involving indigenous people and contributes to numerous unresolved and cold cases (Allen, 2022). This indicates a state failure to prevent and punish femicide.

In response to high cases of missing and murdered indigenous women and girls, the Canadian government held a national inquiry and released a final report in 2019. The report deemed the crisis a genocide while recognizing colonialism, systemic racism, and gender-based violence as the root cause. However, the government is criticized for its slow response in implementing the recommendations of the report (Into the Shadows, 2024).

Cultural-related Femicide

Femicide by family members in the form of honor killings are deeply entrenched in the cultural landscape of numerous countries. Pakistan has one of the highest rates of honor killings in the world, with human right defenders estimating that 1,000 women are killed every year in the name of honor by methods such as shotguns, strangulation, or burning (Wikipedia). However, according to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, hundreds of women are estimated to be killed each year (CBS News, 2023).

Common reasons for honor-related femicide vary, including a woman refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being raped or sexually assaulted, and being deemed as dressing inappropriately or displaying disobedient or shameful behavior. Last year, an 18-year-old woman was shot dead by her father and three other men on orders from elders of a tribal after an apparently doctored photo of her sitting with a boyfriend went viral on social media. 

 

Pakistan has one of the highest rates of honor killings in the world.

 

Pakistan has pursued legal changes. In 2016, the government amended its legislation to impose a mandatory life sentence for perpetrators of honor killings. Previously, avoiding a jail term was possible if perpetrators were pardoned by the victim's family. Despite the change in the law, human rights groups say that perpetrators are still escaping justice (CBS News, 2023).

Dowry death is another example of cultural- and family-related killings predominantly perpetrated by male family members, particularly the husband and his relatives. In India, which has one of the highest rates of dowry deaths, 6,450 dowry deaths were registered with the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) in 2022, a slight decline from previous years (Rajkumar, 2023). Seeking justice may take years. In December 2024, a court in Mainpuri sentenced a man and his brother to life imprisonment for setting his wife, Reena Devi, ablaze over ten years ago, over dowry demands (Dilshad, 2024). 

 

India has one of the highest rates of dowry deaths.

 

In India, Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code was introduced in 1983 to protect married women from cruelty by their husbands or his relatives, with the aim of combating dowry deaths. Nevertheless, cultural norms and a lack of trust in the legal system continue to hinder effective outcomes (BharatLaw.ai, 2024).

Femicide in intimate and familial relationships reflects the control and subjugation of women in the private sphere, as well as the broader gender inequality in society.

 

The Curious Case of Iceland

Iceland, a country that has closed more than 90% of its gender gap, among other ways, through various reforms (in health, education, political empowerment, and economic participation). Presumably, reforms and a narrow gender gap would significantly reduce all forms of violence against women. Unfortunately, in reality it does not work that way. Iceland has been coined “the best place in the world for a woman”, but in fact, it is a place where a quarter of women have experienced rape or attempted rape and around 40% have been subjected to physical or sexual violence (BBC News, 2024). However, in 2023, Iceland saw a significant decrease in reported sexual abuse (Ćirić, 2024).

While femicide remains low, recent data from 2023 indicates that Iceland has been experiencing an increasing trend in domestic violence over the past few years (Statista, 2024). Thus, although Iceland is considered one of the safest countries in the world, women are apparently not so safe inside the home.

 

This puzzling phenomenon, known as the "Nordic Paradox," reveals that gender equality does not necessarily translate into safety for women.

 

In fact, despite ranking high in the World Economic Forum's gender-equality rankings, Iceland, along with other Nordic countries, has rates of gender-based violence above the European Union (EU) average (Higgins, 2024). This puzzling phenomenon, known as the "Nordic Paradox," reveals that gender equality does not necessarily translate into safety for women. Even in a country as advanced in equality as Iceland, gendered power relations remain prevalent, especially in the private sphere, where masculinity and male dominance persist.

 

Beyond Reform 

From our discussion in parts 1 and 2, it appears that addressing gender-based violence, including femicide, requires structural changes in gendered power relations that extend beyond policy, legal, political, and economic reforms. Any real change necessitates the redefinition of masculinity and femininity, rather than merely redistributing or eliminating gender roles to fix imbalances—a practice that does not address the root cause of violence against women.

True change involves deconstructing both masculinity and femininity, which are shaped by deep-rooted patriarchal values and interests that perpetuate gendered power structures, and an understanding of how these structures are interconnected with class, race, ethnicity, sexuality, disability, and belief systems. Therefore, achieving these goals entails a generational struggle to deconstruct existing ethics and moral values. These objectives cannot be met by relying solely on policy changes; rather, a strong civil society-driven sociocultural change is essential.

 

Image: Death Seizing a Woman by Kathe Kollwitz, 1934 (Wikiart.org)

Check out my other blog for essays on gender, history, and culture.

 

Sources:

Allen, Jenn (2022) ‘Indigenous leaders and advocates in Winnipeg say the MMIWG crisis is a national state of emergency.’ CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/mmiwg-winnipeg-rally-national-emergency-1.6674143 [27 December 2024].

Antara News (2024a) Women’s body urges govt to maintain femicide database. https://en.antaranews.com/news/329406/womens-body-urges-govt-to-maintain-femicide-database [11 December 2024].

Antara News (2024b) Komnas Perempuan asks gov't to form femicide watch. https://en.antaranews.com/news/313179/komnas-perempuan-asks-govt-to-form-femicide-watch [11 December 2024].

BBC News (2024) Is Iceland the best place in the world to be a woman? https://youtu.be/h_y4xMOKWUM?si=Ehja0Pb25tikVKRs [21 December 2024].

Bharat Law AI (2024) Section 498a of the Indian Penal Code: an analysis of its impact, misuse, and the way forward. https://www.bharatlaw.ai/post/section-498a-of-the-indian-penal-code-an-analysis-of-its-impact-misuse-and-the-way-forward [27 December 2024].

CBS News (2023) 4 arrested in "honor killing" of 18-year-old Pakistani woman after doctored photo with her boyfriend goes viral. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/honor-killing-pakistan-doctored-photo-woman-boyfriend-goes-viral-arrests [17 December 2024].

Ćirić, Jelena (2024) 'Reports of Sexual Violence Decreased by 15% in Iceland.' Iceland Review https://www.icelandreview.com/news/society/reports-of-sexual-violence-decreased-by-15-in-iceland/ [21 December 2024].

Dilshad, Mohd (2024) 'Dowry death: Victim’s final words land hubby, in-laws in jail.' Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/agra/dowry-death-victims-final-words-land-hubby-in-laws-in-jail/articleshow/116446596.cms [24 Desember 2024].

Higgins, Isabella (2024) 'Why gender-based and sexual violence is so high in the world's 'most gender-equal' country.' ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-05-19/why-nordic-paradox-means-womens-equality-doesnt-equal-safety/103842754 [22 December 2024].

Into the Shadows (2024) Why are indigenous women disappearing across Canada? https://youtu.be/JMgUskWsmv8?si=yj34klW0ZTCsfKQU [19 December 2024].

Moench, Mallory (2024) 'Nearly 70% of Gaza war dead verified by UN are women and children.'   BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn5wel11pgdo [13 December 2024].

Oxfam International (2024) More women and children killed in Gaza by Israeli military than any other recent conflict in a single year.  https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/more-women-and-children-killed-gaza-israeli-military-any-other-recent-conflict [13 December 2024].

Pandey, Madhumita (2024) 'Femicide: why a specific crime is needed.' Social Europe. https://www.socialeurope.eu/femicide-why-a-specific-crime-is-needed [21 December 2024].

Rajkumar, Akchayaa (2023) 'More than 6,000 dowry death cases registered in 2022: NCRB.' The News Minute. https://www.thenewsminute.com/news/more-than-6000-dowry-death-cases-registered-in-2022-ncrb-data data [24 December 2024].

Russell, Diana E.H. (2011) The origin and importance of the term femicide. https://www.dianarussell.com/origin_of_femicide.htm [21 December 2024].

Statista (2024) Number of domestic conflicts and violence in Iceland from 2015 to 2023. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1463279/number-of-domestic-violence-cases-in-iceland/ [22 December 2024].

Tempo.co (2024) National Commission on Violence Against Women calls for gender-just law enforcement officials in femicide cases. https://en.tempo.co/read/1951334/national-commission-on-violence-against-women-calls-for-gender-just-law-enforcement-officials-in-femicide-cases [11 December 2024].

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