FERTILITY AND THE LABOR OF CARE

 

 

 

Policies to curb fertility rates have seen more success than those aiming to increase them. Throughout history, these successes in population control were achieved at the cost of women’s reproductive rights. In contrast, countries in various parts of the world today are experiencing a threatening decline in fertility rates, but policies to reverse it have not worked. This is because, in part, these policies have yet to touch on the underlying problems of equality. These problems need to be sufficiently addressed as many countries are facing a fertility rate far below the 2.1 average number of children born to a woman that is needed to build a stable population, which may result in irrecoverable conditions for the future generation. Furthermore, policies that potentially disregard human rights may emerge as a desperate response to the population problem.

 

High Cost, Low Fertility                          

This trend of declining birth rate is threatening some of the strongest economies, where women’s employment rates are over half of the countries’ working age population. In many of these countries, high costs of birth, childcare, and education have discouraged women and men to have children. As these costs appear to be the direct cause of low birth rates, governments tend to take a policy approach targeted at these factors. However, these initiatives have not seen much success. Fertility rates continue to plummet as women and men choose not to have children.

Take Japan, a country with one of the lowest birth rates in the world and one of the highest life expectancies, its fertility rate is 1.3. Japan has 14.4 million children under the age of 15, that’s just about 11.5% of the total population. Lack of students has led 8,580 public schools to close between 2002 and 2020. 

 

Schools in Japan lack students (Photo: Nippon.com)

 

Japan’s high cost of living, expensive housing, limited space, and lack of city-based childcare services pose many challenges to raise children. The results are delayed marriages and the decline of the marriage rate. To tackle the crisis, the Japanese government has vowed to provide benefits that could support freelance or self-employed workers in addition to extra allowances for education, housing, and child support, as well as the establishment of more daycare centers. It is doubtful, however, whether these policies will significantly increase the fertility rate when we consider South Korea—a country where childcare policies have evolved over decades, but the fertility rate is at its lowest. 

South Korea is struggling with its lowest fertility rate, with the average number of children born to a woman in her reproductive years at 0.78 as of February 2023 and is expected to drop to 0.65 in 2025. In the past 16 years, the country’s fertility rate has dropped more than 25%, even though the government claimed that it has spent over $200 billion on programs to increase births. The Seoul Metropolitan Government is providing subsidy for female residents, regardless of marital status, who would like to delay pregnancy by freezing their eggs.

South Korea is notorious for its high cost of living, education, and housing which makes it an undesirable place to raise children. In addition, long term effects of past strict population control policies, as in China, have changed attitudes towards having children in South Korea. Both countries are now left with, according to experts, irreversible low fertility rates (1.7 births per woman for China in 2023) and an ageing population. 

 

South Korea is notorious for its high cost of living (Photo: The Diplomat)

  

Similarly, Italy bears the lowest fertility rate in the EU region, which is about 1.3 in 2023, despite various government initiatives—including parental leave allowance and the launch of birth payments since 2015. Changes over the second postwar years, such as challenges to the Catholic Church, emergence of single-parent families, and decrease in the number of marriages have shift values of a traditional big family to a small one. Since the 2008 economic crisis, Italy has seen a steady decline of birth rates. As the economy weakened, the country faces increasingly high cost of living and housing and—like many other countries—childcare issues.

Likewise, experts also identify cultural factors aside from economic factors for the decline of fertility rates in South Korea. This is particularly attributed to the culture of workism, where work defines an individual’s value, which is considered more important than one’s personal life achievements. This competitive culture combined with deep-rooted patriarchal culture, which puts the burden of childcare and housework on women, impede government’s financial efforts to boost birth rates.

 

The Labor of Care

The effect of paternity leave

Instead of just targeting to ease the economic burden to have children, governments also take other measures to balance the responsibility of childcare between both parents in the home, with the hope to increase the number of working women that would start a family. For example, in 2021, the Japanese parliament passed a bill that allows Japanese men up to four weeks of flexible paternity leave.

However, entrenched patriarchal traditions will not change overnight or even within decades because of a few policies. Japanese male workers are hesitant to take paternity leave because of the damage it can do to one’s career. In 2021, only about 14% male workers are reported to take this leave. Both women and men in Japan, China, and South Korea have reported that marriage and children have had negative effects on their careers. 

 

China's previous one-child policy mural (Photo: abc.net au)

 

Interestingly, Sweden, a country long known for its family friendly policies, good quality and low-cost education is also facing low fertility rate (1.8 births per woman in 2023). Sweden is the pioneer of parental leave with state-mandatory paternity leave as early as 1974. With this policy, Sweden has transformed caring roles by replacing maternity leave with parental leave. However, since 2021, Sweden only saw an increase of around 69,230 people (0.7 percent). High inflation rate in Sweden is influencing couples’ decision to have children. Nevertheless, there are other predominant factors.

Persisting gaps in carework

Decades of government initiatives in Sweden have narrowed gender inequality in the workplace and raised gender equality in childcare in the home. Nevertheless, even in what is considered one of the world’s most egalitarian countries, women still perform a larger proportion of unpaid carework. In Sweden, 74% of women do housework or cook for at least one hour every day compared to 56% of men (Demographic Research, 2013), a figure that is still lower than the European average of 79% to 34% (Gender Equality Index website, 2019). Swedish women spend about 3.7 hours on unpaid carework (including housework) compared to 2.9 hours which men do, while the number daily is 5.1 to 2.2 hours in Italy (OECD Stats, 2023). These figures indicate that caring roles and housework duties are still gendered in both European countries.

 

Policies need to transform carework (Photo: wipsociology.org)

 

The gap is wider in the Asian countries discussed above. In Japan, a survey conducted in 2021 revealed that on average, female respondents spent more hours on childcare, with 4.7 percent reporting a daily time of 13 hours or more, while around seven percent of male respondents reported spending an average of one hour per day on childcare. Other data reveal that women in Japan spend about 2.55 hours daily on housework in 2021 compared to men who spend only 26 minutes daily (Statista, 2022). In China in 2019, the number is 3.48 hours daily compared to 1.32 hours daily (National Bureau of Statistics, 2019). In South Korea in 2019, married women spend 3.75 hours daily compared to married men who spent 64 minutes daily on housework (Statista, 2023). This indicates that despite the fact that employed women constitute over half of the working age population, traditional gender roles in domestic work and childcare still persist in these Asian societies.

Meanwhile, Sweden (and other Nordic countries) may seem light years ahead of many countries in terms of reaching gender advancements that are beyond female labor force participation and which transforms male roles in the private sphere. However, Swedish women tend to be overrepresented in lower paying jobs in the public sector compared to men who are in higher-paying private sector jobs and spending less time on housework.

 

Policies Need to Transform Caring Roles

In the countries mentioned above, even though women have a high participation in the labor force, women spend more hours in unpaid carework than men. So, these countries like many other countries across the globe have successfully transformed women into workers (albeit to meet the state’s development goals) but have been less successful in or have ignored the importance of transforming men into carers and effectively challenging the traditional male breadwinner role. This gender gap, if not addressed sufficiently, will continue to impede potential increase in birth rates and gender equality. 

 

 Policies have yet to transform carework

to integrate men into this labor

 

Furthermore, economic conditions and the burden of unpaid carework impact the decision to have children, likely more for women, especially in countries where traditional gender roles are an important part of the culture. As economic conditions worsen and gender norms remain stagnant, women will continue to delay or abandon the idea of having children. This is why policies aiming to boost fertility rates are not making significant changes. Not only because insufficient economic incentives impede the success of these policies, but these policies have yet to transform carework to integrate men into this labor the way other policies have integrated women into the labor force (albeit not to say without discrimination).

 

The Option of Immigration

To yield the results of cultural transformation will take time. Therefore, simultaneously, shorter-term measures must be taken. Immigration to help recover from population decline may be the only viable option, one which some governments may have already considered. However, this does not appear to be a solution that will find much support from the people. In South Korea and Japan, in particular, multiculturalism tends to be frown upon; the people prefer a homogenous society.

Meanwhile in EU countries, problems with large influx of immigrants and the socioeconomic and political issues that arise with it, make this option one that is indeed controversial. Immigration has been met with resistance in the form of a rather extreme nationalist fear of extinction by “ethnic replacement” which justifies an anti-immigration stance to the population problem. This view is reminiscent of fascist population initiatives of the past where a woman’s body is controlled to reproduce a specific race.

 

Mussolini checking over Italian mothers' unpaid reproductive work for the state (Photo: Jstor.org)

 

Nevertheless, even the most unfavorable option should be considered in such a crisis. Especially when we understand that a lack of workers in the future will mean a generation living under a collapsed pension system as there are very few contributors and, at the same time, few people to support the elderly.

So as we can see, ending the continuous decline of a population involves not only financial incentives, but moreover, a shift in perspective from entrenched cultural traditions and homogeneity to an acceptance of a different kind of society. Furthermore, having or not having children is a human right, including the reproductive rights of women, which means government intervention on the number of children is not only undesirable, but is a potential breach of this right.

Top image: Izz R. (Unsplash) 

 

Sources

Ahn, Ashley (2023) ‘South Korea has the world's lowest fertility rate, a struggle with lessons for us all.’ NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/2023/03/19/1163341684/south-korea-fertility-rate [19 March 2023].

Bateman, Kayleigh (2022) Birth rates are shrinking in Japan - and elsewhere | World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/01/japan-global-birth-rate-decline/ [12 November 2023].

CNE.news (2023) ‘Sweden joins other European countries in birth rate decline.’ https://cne.news/article/2655-sweden-joins-other-european-countries-in-birth-rate-decline [10 December 2023].

European Union (2019) Gender Equality Index 2019. European Institute for Gender Equality https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2019/domain/time [10 December 2023].

Goldscheider, Frances, Eva Bernhardt, and Maria Brandén (2013) ‘Domestic gender equality and childbearing in Sweden’ (Volume 29 - Article 40 Pgs. 1097–1126) Demographic Research  https://www.demographic-research.org/articles/volume/29/40/ [10 December 2023].

Jessie Yeung and Moeri Karasawa (2023) ‘Japan’s population drops by half a million in 2022.' CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2023/04/13/asia/japan-population-decline-record-drop-intl-hnk/index.html [15 April 2023].

Koh Sarah (2023) ‘Seoul’s subsidy programme for egg-freezing gets “overwhelming” response from unmarried women.’ The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/seoul-s-subsidy-programme-for-egg-freezing-gets-overwhelming-response-from-unmarried-women [26 December 2023].

Lendon, Brad and Gawon Bae (2023) ‘South Korea to see population plummet to 1970s levels, government says.’ CNN.com. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/12/15/asia/south-korea-to-see-population-plummet-intl-hnk/index.html [18 December 2023].

Luciano, Mario, Gaia Sampogna, Valeria del Vecchio, Domenico Giacco, Alice Mulè, Corrado de Rosa, Andrea Fiorillo, and Mario Maj (2012) ‘The family in Italy: Cultural changes and implications for treatment.’ International Review of Psychiatry, 24:2, 149-156. DOI: 10.3109/09540261.2012.656306 [26 December 2023].

OCED Stats (2023) Time spent in paid and unpaid work, by sex. stats.oecd.org [18 December 2023].

Shao, Jessica and Yoolim Lee (2023) Gender Norms and Women’s Double Burden in East Asia – The Diplomat https://thediplomat.com/2023/11/gender-norms-and-womens-double-burden-in-east-asia/ [18 December 2023].

Statista.com (2023) ‘South Korea: daily time spent on house chores by gender.’ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1378142/south-korea-daily-time-spent-on-house-chores-by-gender/ [18 December 2023].

_____ (2022) ‘Weekly minutes for household chores among Japanese 1976-2021, by gender.’ https://www.statista.com/statistics/874503/japan-time-spent-housework-weekly-average-by-gender/ [18 December 2023].

The Star (2023) ‘Japan has seen the closure of some 8,580 public schools since 2002, due to extreme population decline.’ https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/living/2023/11/12/japan-has-seen-the-closure-of-some-8580-public-schools-since-2002-due-to-extreme-population-decline [12 November 2023].

Wang, Yaqiu (2023) It’s time to abolish China’s three-child policy. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/22/its-time-abolish-chinas-three-child-policy [18 December 2023].

Yeung, Jessie and Mayumi Maruyama (2022) ‘Japan births fall to record low as population crisis deepens.’ CNN.com. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/01/asia/japan-births-2022-record-low-intl-hnk/index.html  [12 November 2023].